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Hugh of Ibelin (c. 1130-1133 – 1169/1171) was an important noble in the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Hugh was the eldest son of Barisan of Ibelin and Helvis of Ramla. He was old enough to witness charters in 1148, as was his younger brother Baldwin of Ibelin, which suggests he was born c. 1130-1133, as the male age of majority was fifteen. (H.E. Mayer has suggested a limited degree of competence may have been accepted from the age of eight, reducing his age, but the examples given of this are of males of the royal house, whose situation was somewhat different.) He was probably about ten years older than his youngest brother, Balian of Ibelin.

After his father Barisan died in 1150, Helvis married the Constable of Jerusalem, Manasses of Hierges, who was one of the strongest supporters of Queen Melisende in the power struggle against Melisende’s son Baldwin III. Manasses was exiled in 1152 when Baldwin was victorious in this struggle, allowing Hugh to inherit Ramla from his mother. Hugh took part in the Siege of Ascalon in 1153, and in 1157 was captured in battle at Banias, being released probably the next year. In 1159 he visited the Principality of Antioch and met with Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus, who had arrived to assert his suzerainty over the principality. In 1163 Hugh married Agnes of Courtenay (1133 – 1184/1185), Lady of Toron, the former wife of King Amalric I and mother of Baldwin IV, daughter of Joscelin II de Courtenay, Count of Edessa, by whom he had no issue. It is possible that Agnes had already been betrothed or married to him before 1157, date some say it was the one of the actual marriage but she married Amalric after Hugh was taken prisoner; Amalric was forced to divorce her before becoming King in 1163.

Hugh participated Amalric's expedition to Egypt in 1167, and was responsible for building a bridge over the Nile. The crusaders allied with the sultan against Shirkuh, the general of Nur ad-Din Zangi who was also fighting for control of Egypt, and Hugh was sent to protect Cairo along with the sultan's son Kamil. Hugh was the first crusader ever to see the sultan's palace. At the siege of Bilbeis during the same Egyptian campaign, according to Ibelin family tradition, Hugh's life was saved by Philip of Milly after breaking his leg and falling under his horse.[1] Hugh died around 1169 during a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. His territories of Ibelin and Ramla passed to his brother Baldwin.

Another Hugh of Ibelin was the son of John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut, and the grand-nephew of this Hugh.

Divorced/annulled 1174.

Flavius Arbogastes (died September 6, 394), or Arbogast was a Frankish general in the Roman Empire. It has been stated by some ancient historians that he was the son of Flavius Bauto, Valentinian II's former magister militum and protector before Arbogast, but modern scholars largely discount this claim.[1] See "The Historia" of Arbogast and Bauto.

Early careerFlavius Arbogastes, or simply Arbogast, was the nephew of the great Frankish General Flavius Richomeres[2] and resided within the Frankish domain as a native of Galatia Minor[3] until he was expelled in the later 370s CE. It was at this point when Arbogast joined the Roman imperial military service under the command of the emperor Gratian, son of Valentinian I[4] and elder brother to Valentinian II, in the Western Roman Empire.[5] Shortly after his inclusion into the Roman military, Arbogast had made a name for himself as being an extremely efficient and loyal field-commander.[6] So much so, in fact, that in 380 CE Gratian sent Arbogast along with his magister militum Bauto[7] to aid Theodosius I[8] against the Visigoths and their leader Fritigern after they had pillaged and plundered areas of Macedonia and Thessaly that year and the year before. The Western armies, commanded by Bauto and Arbogast, and those from Theodosius I in the East, were successful in pushing Fritigern out of Macedonia and Thessaly towards Thrace in lower Moesia where their raids had begun, and ultimately established a peace treaty with the Visigoths in 382 CE.[9]

[edit] Threat and execution of MaximusAfter the death of Gratian in 383 CE on behalf of Magnus Maximus[10] that resulted from a power struggle between the two, the Western Roman Empire became under control of the latter after his acknowledgment as co-Augustus by Theodosius I.[11] However, four years later in 387 CE Maximus invaded Italy seeking political control over the entire empire, which prompted the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I to gather his available armies, including the Goths, Huns, and Alans, along with his trusted commanders Arbogast and Richomeres to squash the rising authority of Maximus.[12] The campaign against Maximus came to an end only a year later in 388 CE after Maximus was defeated at Poetovio by the armies of Theodosius I and retreated from the Julian Alps towards Aquileia, where he believed he would be safe until his reinforcements arrived.I[13] This was not the case however, and Maximus was surrendered to Theodosius I and was executed on August 28, 388 CE with his head then making a tour of the provinces.[14] After the execution of Maximus, Arbogast, who at this time had the title of magister peditum in the West, was dispatched to Trier by Theodosius I in order to assassinate the son of Maximus, and heir to the throne in the West, Victor.[15] This was done with ease on behalf of Arbogast and with the disposal of both Maximus and Victor, Theodosius I was able to give control over the West to Valentinian II, the younger son of Valentinian I. At the time however, Valentinian II was too young to rule the Western Empire from Italy on his own, so Theodosius I stayed in Italy to conduct civil and political affairs from the beginning of Valentinian II's reign in 388 CE until 391 CE when he left for Constantinople, at which time Arbogast was promoted to magister militum and left to keep an eye on the young Emperor after they were moved to Vienne.[16]

[edit] Arbogast and Valentinian IIThe controversy involving Arbogast began during the regency of Valentinian II, who soon after his recognition as Emperor by Theodosius I became a figure-head for the wills and ambitions of Arbogast. After being proclaimed as the only Magister Militum in Praesenti, or commander of the armies in attendance on the emperor in the Western Empire by Theodosius I, Arbogast's authority throughout the Western Provinces, mainly Gaul, Spain and Britain, seemed to be absolute, with him only having to answer to Theodosius I himself. However, given that Arbogast was a barbarian by birth, he was unable to claim control over those territories under his own name and had to do so in the name of Valentinian II instead.[17] By 391 CE, Valentinian II had already been isolated in Vienne, his status essentially reduced to that of a private citizen, and the control of the Western armies now belonged to Frankish mercenaries loyal to Arbogast. Furthermore, Valentinian's Court was also overrun by those loyal to Arbogast after Arbogast had placed them in favorable positions.[18] Furthermore, during this period Arbogast had become increasingly violent towards Valentinian II and his councilors, so much so, in fact, that Arbogast is described as killing the councilor Harmonius, a friend of the Emperor who had been accused of taking bribes, at the feet of Valentinian II in 391 CE.[19] At this point, Valentinian II began recognizing the extent to which Arbogast's authority had reached, and with Arbogast seemingly expressing his authority over him at will, Valentinian II began sending secret messages to both Theodosius I and Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, pleading for them to come to his aid,[20] even so much as asking Ambrose for a baptism in fear that his death might come sooner than expected at the hands of Arbogast.[21]

[edit] Death of Valentinian IITension between Arbogast and Valentinian II reached its height in 392 CE when Valentinian II issued Arbogast an order of dismissal from his seat of power.[22] According to Zosimus, after receiving the order of dismissal from Valentinian II, Arbogast states "You have neither give my my command nor will you be able to take it away," and promptly threw the order to the ground and walked out.[23] Soon after this encounter, Arbogast and Valentinian II met again in the palace of the Emperor and began a discussion which soon escalated into a confrontation between the two, ultimately resulting in Valentinian's attempt to stab Arbogast with a sword belonging to the man-at-arms beside him, which was prevented by the latter.[24] Whether or not the account of Philostorgius is true, shortly afterwards on May 15, 392, Valentinian II was found hanged in his sleeping quarters with suicide claimed as the cause of death by Arbogast.[25] According to Ambrose of Milan, the body of Valentinian II was sent by Arbogast to Milan for a proper funeral,[26] and four months later in Augst 392, Arbogast nominated Eugenius,[27] a Roman teacher of rhetoric, as the next emperor in the West.[28]

[edit] Debate about the death of Valentinian IIAlthough the ancient historians were unanimous in stating Arbogast's claimed innocence about the death of Valentinian II, some of them could not agree on whether or not his claim was true. Historians such as Zosmius,[29] Philostorgius,[30] Socrates Scholasticus,[31] and Paulus Orosius,[32] all believed Valentinian II was murdered, one way or the other, by Arbogast. On the other hand, more contemporary scholars such as Edward Gibbon, who thought the death of Valentinian II was a plotted conspiracy so Arbogast could remain at the seat of command in the West through another puppet emperor,[33] while John Frederick Matthews,[34] and Brian Croke[35] argue that the death of Valentinian II was a result of suicide. Croke, for example, argues that given the period of four months time between the death of Valentinian II and the promotion of Eugenius was sufficient enough for him to appear innocent, implying that if Arbogast had plotted an assassination, Arbogast would have instilled a replacement for Valentinian II almost immediately. Furthermore, Gerard Friell describes Valentinian II as being humiliated after his authority was devalued by Arbogast on multiple occasions and seemingly cites depression as the main cause of suicide for Valentinian II.[36] Bishop Ambrose, on the other hand, claims that the death of Valentinian II was a result over a dispute between him and Arbogast involving diplomacy and who would lead the armies into Italy in an attempt to defend it from invading forces from the Balkans.[37] Additionally, it has also been suggested that Arbogast, a man with pagan influences, was attempting to revive the paganism efforts in Rome by electing Eugenius, who is believed to have been sympathetic towards Paganism, although himself a Christian.[38] However, the nearest historical source available regarding the death of Valentinian II, Rufinus of Aquileia, states in his ecclesiastical history that nobody was really sure what exactly happened to Valentinian II[39] Because this is the case, any opinions about the event are most likely to have been fabricated by those telling the story, with new evidence seemingly unattainable.

[edit] Arbogast and EugeniusWhether or not the rumors surrounding the death of Valentinian II are true, Eugenius nonetheless was elected as the next Emperor of the Western Roman Empire in August, 392 CE, after a regime change that was considered "legitimate, legal, Roman, and civilized."[40] Afterwards, one of the first acts by Arbogast was to travel across the Rhine frontier in 393 CE to take revenge against his own Franks and their kinglets Sunno and Marcomer who had plundered the regions north of the Rhine during the previous year while the West was still under the rule of Valentinian II.[41] In launching this campaign, which was met with little opposition, Arbogast was successful in restoring the fortress city of Cologne, returning to the city its protection as a strategic location, which, at this time in 393 CE, was the last time the Roman army would occupy the eastern bank of the Rhine River.[42] Furthermore, Arbogast was able to conclude a peace treaty with the Franks that provided the Roman military with fresh Frankish recruits, something that was considered a great accomplishment by Arbogast.[43]

However, trouble for both Arbogast and Eugenius arose as the Pagan revitalization movement[44] began during the reign of Eugenius, which may or may not have been intended by either one of them,[45] although some, such as Zosimus, would differ.[46] After appealing to both Theodosius I and Ambrose as a Christian, which is perhaps the reason why the nomination of Eugenius was approved by Theodosius I in the first place, the pagan influences of Arbogast seemed to have made their way through Eugenius, as many of the pagan temples, which had previously been closed under the emperors Gratian and Valentinian II, were now opened and restored to working condition.[47] This, coupled with Theodosius I elevating the status of his youngest son Honorius to full Augustus in 393 CE[48] effectively reduced the legitimacy of Eugenius and pushed the two camps, those of Arbogast and Eugenius and Theodosius I and Ambrose, further apart from one another. Furthermore, with the lines of communication being fractured at best between the Eastern half of the empire and the West as a result of the promotion of Rufinus to Praetorian Prefect in the East after the death of Valentinian II,[49] Rufinus was able to inform Theodosius I about whatever he believed to be worthy of the Emperor's attention. At this point, eager to regain their legitimacy, both Arbogast and Eugenius set off to claim Italy in support of their cause in April 393, and even so much as to threatening to turn the basilica at Milan into a stable for their horses in 394.[50] Eventually the influences of both Arbogast and Eugenius, along with the reappointment of Nicomachus Flavianus[51] as the Praetorian Prefect of Italy, led to the full, and last, revival of paganism as Eugenius, albeit reluctantly due to his diminishing, yet still present Christian roots, allowed for the Altar of Victory and other pagan symbols in Italy to be restored.[52]

Shortly after these events, Emperor Theodosius I, perhaps realizing the situation between East and West was becoming problematic at the least, began to prepare his foederati, including Germanic troops, those from the Visigothic treaty in 382 CE led by Alaric, as well as a contingency of Alans and Huns,[53] for war against Arbogast and Eugenius in 394.[54] Given that Arbogast and Eugenius had began openly celebrating paganism again, Theodosius I sought fit to justify his actions against Arbogast and Eugenius as a Holy War, and set off through the Justinian Alps with his armies to eliminate both of his adversaries from their respective commands at the Battle of the Frigidus in 394.

[edit] The Battle of the FrigidusAs the threat of war between Arbogast and Eugenius and Theodosius I became more immanent, Arbogast and Eugenius moved their collective force towards the defenses of the Julian Alps, where they made camp in Milan and were joined by Nicomachus Flavianus, who had consulted the Pagan entrails and proclaimed a future victory for the Pagan cause under the names of Eugenius and Arbogastes.[55] Hoping to use the Justinian Alps to their advantage, Arbogast and Eugenius planned to use them as the location for their series of ambushes that would, in theory, lead to the encirclement of Theodosius I and his troops. As this was being planned by his enemies, Theodosius I set off from Constantinople for war in the middle of May, reaching Adrianople on June 20, 394 CE. However, upon arriving at Sirmium, Theodosius I took time to reinforce his troops, causing a delay in the expected arrival time of Theodosius, something Arbogast and Eugenius had been counting on for their ambush tactics. Because of the delay, Arbogast thought as though Theodosius I was planning to out flank them by use of an amphibious assault to their south that would have come from behind the heavily defended Adriatic coast. In thinking this, Arbogast dispatched a substantial portion of his forces to the south, which proved to be a costly maneuver by Arbogast.

By the time Theodosius I reached Arbogast’s location in September, after passing through the Justinian Alps, he was able to see the forces of Arbogast and Eugenius in the plain below with their backs turned to the river Frigidus, firmly entrenched and ready for the battle. Theodosius I quickly realized that the strategic elevated positions were already occupied by some of Arbogast’s forces, and given that Arbogast moved of a portion of his forces to the south, thus making the possibility of out –flanking Arbogast a difficult one. With this in mind, on September 5, 394 CE, Theodosius lead his force on a frontal assault of Arbogast and his troops, with many Visigoths serving in the vanguard. The brutal fighting lasted the entire day with Theodosius I unable to break the lines of Arbogast’s forces while taking heavy losses to his barbarian troops in the process. With defeat getting near, Theodosius and his armies retreated towards the protection of the Justinian Alps where Theodosius prayed to God asking him for help against his enemies. Meanwhile, at the camp of Arbogast and Eugenius, the men were celebrating what they believed to be a victory over Theodosius. At this time, Arbogast sent a considerable portion of his army to attack Theodosius I from the rear in the Alps. This did not go according to Arbogast’s plan, however, and as soon as his troops came upon the camp of Theodosius I, he offered them substantial portions of money, which they agreed to relatively easily. Theodosius, now having a greater number or troops than the previous night when they retreated, was ready to lead another attack upon the armies of Arbogast and Eugenius the following day on September 6, 394 CE. If the substantial loss of his own troops on behalf of bribery by Theodosius I wasn’t enough of an insult to Arbogast, the fate that awaited him on the second day of battle was surely enough to bring him to defeat. While Theodosius I lead his troops through a narrow road leading to the valley in which the previous day’s battle took place, Arbogast, Eugenius and their men attempted to ambush Theodosius I but were unsuccessful due in large part to a phenomenon known as the “Bora” that occurs in that region of the Alps, resulting in a pressure effect on the cold air making its way over the mountains which produces cyclonic winds that can gust up to 60 mph. This extreme wind, which is said to have blown in the face or Arbogast and his troops, caused them to shield their eyes from dust and also caused their projectiles to turn back whence they came, effectively minimizing the attack force of Arbogast and his troops, resulting in their defeat on behalf of Theodosius I.[56][57]

[edit] Deaths of Arbogast and EugeniusAfter the camp of Arbogast and Eugenius was overrun by Theodosius I, Eugenius was captured in person and pleaded to be spared. This did not come to be, however, as Eugenius met his end by means of a beheading, and was toured around the provinces much in the same way that Maximus was in 388 CE. Arbogast, on the other hand, was able to escape the clutches of Theodosius I and fled into the Alps where he is said to have wandered alone for a couple days before realizing how hopeless he had become and committed suicide a few days after September 6, 394 in the noble Roman fashion.[58]

[edit] Symbolism of the Battle of the FrigidusMany scholars and academics at the time of the battle, and after hearing the effect of the great winds of the "Bora," quickly thought of it has a message from God and took the outcome of the battle as a victory of Christianity over Paganism.[59] In the historical context, this seems to be true as the revival of Paganism that was present during the reign of Eugenius seems to have been put to bed in the period after the conclusion of the battle. Whether or not it truly was a divine act nobody will know, but the debate that is has stirred will undoubtedly continue.

Divorced before 1147.

Bleda[1] (Aka Buda) (c. 390 – 445) was a Hun ruler, the brother of Attila the Hun.

As nephews to Rugila, Attila and his elder brother Bleda succeeded him to the throne. His reign lasted for eleven years until his death. While it has been speculated[by whom?] throughout history that Attila murdered him on a hunting trip, no one knows how he died. However there is an alternative theory that Bleda attempted to kill Attila on a hunting trip, but Attila being a skilled warrior defeated Bleda. One of the few things known about Bleda is that, after the great Hun campaign of 441, he acquired a Moorish dwarf named Zerco. Bleda was highly amused by Zerco, and went so far as to make a suit of armor for the dwarf so that Zerco could accompany him on campaign.

[edit] Bleda (Buda) and Attila's ruleBy 432 the Huns were united under Rugila. His death in 434 left his nephews Attila and Bleda (the sons of his brother Mundzuk) in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were bargaining with Byzantine emperor Theodosius II's envoys over the return of several renegade tribes who had taken refuge within the Byzantine Empire. The following year Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present-day Požarevac) and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful treaty: the Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid against the Vandals), but also to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (ca. 114.5 kg) of gold, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the empire and returned to their home, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall, and to build up his border defenses along the Danube.

For the next five years the Huns stayed out of Roman sight as they tried to invade the Persian Empire. A defeat in Armenia caused them to abandon this attempt and return their attentions to Europe. In 440 they reappeared on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfill their treaty obligations and that the bishop of Margus had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank. They crossed the Danube and laid waste to Illyrian cities and forts on the river, among them, according to Priscus, Viminacium (present-day Kostolac), which was a city of the Moesians in Illyria. Their advance began at Margus, for when the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them.

Theodosius had stripped the river's defenses in response to the Vandal Gaiseric's capture of Carthage in 440 and the Sassanid Yazdegerd II's invasion of Armenia in 441. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyria into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica)before halting. A lull followed in 442 and during this time Theodosius recalled his troops from North Africa and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns. Having made these preparations, he thought it safe to refuse the Hunnish kings' demands.

Attila and Bleda responded by renewing their campaign in 443. Striking along the Danube, they overran the military centers of Ratiaria and successfully besieged Naissus (modern Niš) with battering rams and rolling towers (military sophistication that was new to the Hun repertory), then pushing along the Nisava they took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and Arcadiopolis (Luleburgaz). They encountered and destroyed the Roman force outside Constantinople and were only halted by their lack of siege equipment capable of breaching the city's massive walls. Theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official Anatolius to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (ca. 1,963 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 687 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to twelve solidi.

Their demands met for a time, the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to Jordanes (following Priscus), sometime during the peace following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445), Bleda died (killed by his brother, according to the classical sources), and Attila took the throne for himself. A few sources indicate that Bleda tried to kill Attila first, to which Attila retaliated.

In 448, Priscus encountered Bleda's widow, then governor of an unnamed village, while on an embassy to Attila's court.